SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Strong cryptography</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Strong cryptography</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<p><b>Strong cryptography</b> or <b>cryptographically strong</b> are general terms used to designate the <a href="Cryptographic_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptographic algorithm">cryptographic algorithms</a> that, when used correctly, provide a very high (usually insurmountable) level of protection against any <a href="Eavesdropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Eavesdropper">eavesdropper</a>, including the government agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015121_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015121-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no precise definition of the boundary line between the strong cryptography and (<a href="Broken_cipher" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken cipher">breakable</a>) <b>weak cryptography</b>, as this border constantly shifts due to improvements in hardware and <a href="Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These improvements eventually place the capabilities once available only to the <a href="NSA" class="mw-redirect" title="NSA">NSA</a> within the reach of a skilled individual,<sup id="cite_ref-nytm19940712_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytm19940712-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so in practice there are only two levels of cryptographic security, "cryptography that will stop your kid sister from reading your files, and cryptography that will stop major governments from reading your files" (<a href="Bruce_Schneier" title="Bruce Schneier">Bruce Schneier</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The strong cryptography algorithms have high <a href="Security_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Security strength">security strength</a>, for practical purposes usually defined as a number of bits in the <a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">key</a>. For example, the United States government, when dealing with <a href="Export_of_cryptography_from_the_United_States" title="Export of cryptography from the United States">export control of encryption</a>, considered as of 1999 any implementation of the <a href="Symmetric_encryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Symmetric encryption">symmetric encryption</a> algorithm with the <a href="Key_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Key length">key length</a> above 56 bits or its <a href="Public_key" class="mw-redirect" title="Public key">public key</a> equivalent<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to be strong and thus potentially a subject to the <a href="Export_control" title="Export control">export licensing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To be strong, an algorithm needs to have a sufficiently long key and be free of known mathematical weaknesses, as exploitation of these effectively reduces the key size. At the beginning of the 21st century, the typical security strength of the strong symmetrical encryption algorithms is 128 bits (slightly lower values still can be strong, but usually there is little technical gain in using smaller key sizes).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Demonstrating the resistance of any cryptographic scheme to attack is a complex matter, requiring extensive testing and reviews, preferably in a public forum. Good <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> and protocols are required (similarly, good materials are required to construct a strong building), but good system design and implementation is needed as well: "it is possible to build a cryptographically weak system using strong algorithms and protocols" (just like the use of good materials in construction does not guarantee a solid structure). Many real-life systems turn out to be weak when the strong cryptography is not used properly, for example, random <a href="Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">nonces</a> are reused<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19982_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19982-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A successful attack might not even involve algorithm at all, for example, if the key is generated from a password, guessing a weak password is easy and does not depend on the strength of the cryptographic primitives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19983_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19983-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A user can become the weakest link in the overall picture, for example, by sharing passwords and hardware tokens with the colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19984_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19984-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div>

<p>The level of expense required for strong cryptography originally restricted its use to the government and military agencies,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015110_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015110-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the middle of the 20th century the process of encryption required a lot of human labor and errors (preventing the decryption) were very common, so only a small share of written information could have been encrypted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> US government, in particular, was able to keep a monopoly on the development and use of cryptography in the US into the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015109_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015109-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970, the increased availability of powerful computers and unclassified research breakthroughs (<a href="Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard">Data Encryption Standard</a>, the <a href="Diffie-Hellman" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffie-Hellman">Diffie-Hellman</a> and <a href="RSA_(algorithm)" class="mw-redirect" title="RSA (algorithm)">RSA</a> algorithms) made strong cryptography available for civilian use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mid-1990s saw the worldwide proliferation of knowledge and tools for strong cryptography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 21st century the technical limitations were gone, although the majority of the communication were still unencrypted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same the cost of building and running systems with strong cryptography became roughly the same as the one for the weak cryptography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007731_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007731-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The use of computers changed the process of cryptanalysis, famously with <a href="Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a>'s <a href="Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>. But just as the development of digital computers and electronics helped in cryptanalysis, it also made possible much more complex ciphers. It is typically the case that use of a quality cipher is very efficient, while breaking it requires an effort many orders of magnitude larger - making cryptanalysis so inefficient and impractical as to be effectively impossible.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cryptographically_strong_algorithms">Cryptographically strong algorithms</h2></div>

<p>This term "cryptographically strong" is often used to describe an <a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a> <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>, and implies, in comparison to some other algorithm (which is thus cryptographically weak), greater resistance to attack. But it can also be used to describe hashing and unique identifier and filename creation algorithms. See for example the description of the Microsoft .NET runtime library function Path.GetRandomFileName.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this usage, the term means "difficult to guess".

</p><p>An encryption algorithm is intended to be unbreakable (in which case it is as strong as it can ever be), but might be breakable (in which case it is as weak as it can ever be) so there is not, in principle, a continuum of strength as the <a href="Idiom" title="Idiom">idiom</a> would seem to imply: Algorithm A is stronger than Algorithm B which is stronger than Algorithm C, and so on. The situation is made more complex, and less subsumable into a single strength metric, by the fact that there are many types of <a href="Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalytic</a> attack and that any given algorithm is likely to force the attacker to do more work to break it when using one attack than another.

</p><p>There is only one known unbreakable cryptographic system, the <a href="One-time_pad" title="One-time pad">one-time pad</a>, which is not generally possible to use because of the difficulties involved in exchanging one-time pads without them being compromised. So any encryption algorithm can be compared to the perfect algorithm, the one-time pad.

</p><p>The usual sense in which this term is (loosely) used, is in reference to a particular attack, <a href="Brute_force_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Brute force attack">brute force</a> key search — especially in explanations for newcomers to the field. Indeed, with this attack (always assuming keys to have been randomly chosen), there is a continuum of resistance depending on the length of the key used. But even so there are two major problems: many algorithms allow use of different length keys at different times, and any algorithm can forgo use of the full key length possible. Thus, <a href="Blowfish_(cipher)" title="Blowfish (cipher)">Blowfish</a> and <a href="RC5" title="RC5">RC5</a> are <a href="Block_cipher" title="Block cipher">block cipher</a> algorithms whose design specifically allowed for several <a href="Key_size" title="Key size">key lengths</a>, and who cannot therefore be said to have any particular strength with respect to brute force key search. Furthermore, US export regulations restrict key length for exportable cryptographic products and in several cases in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g., famously in the case of <a href="Lotus_Notes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotus Notes">Lotus Notes</a>' export approval) only partial keys were used, decreasing 'strength' against brute force attack for those (export) versions. More or less the same thing happened outside the <a href="United_States" title="United States">US</a> as well, as for example in the case of more than one of the cryptographic algorithms in the <a href="Global_System_for_Mobile_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Global System for Mobile Communications">GSM</a> cellular telephone standard.

</p><p>The term is commonly used to convey that some algorithm is suitable for some task in <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> or <a href="Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a>, but also resists <a href="Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> and has no, or fewer, security weaknesses. Tasks are varied, and might include:

</p>

<ul><li>generating <a href="Randomness" title="Randomness">randomness</a></li>

<li><a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">encrypting</a> data</li>

<li>providing a method to ensure <a href="Data_integrity" title="Data integrity">data integrity</a></li></ul>

<p><i>Cryptographically strong</i> would seem to mean that the described method has some kind of maturity, perhaps even approved for use against different kinds of systematic attacks in theory and/or practice. Indeed, that the method may resist those attacks long enough to protect the information carried (and what stands behind the information) for a useful length of time. But due to the complexity and subtlety of the field, neither is almost ever the case. Since such assurances are not actually available in real practice, sleight of hand in language which implies that they are will generally be misleading.

</p><p>There will always be uncertainty as advances (e.g., in cryptanalytic theory or merely affordable computer capacity) may reduce the effort needed to successfully use some attack method against an algorithm.

</p><p>In addition, actual use of cryptographic algorithms requires their encapsulation in a <a href="Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">cryptosystem</a>, and doing so often introduces vulnerabilities which are not due to faults in an algorithm. For example, essentially all algorithms require random choice of keys, and any cryptosystem which does not provide such keys will be subject to attack regardless of any attack resistant qualities of the encryption algorithm(s) used.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_issues">Legal issues</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Cryptography#Forced_disclosure_of_encryption_keys" title="Cryptography">Cryptography § Forced disclosure of encryption keys</a></div>

<p>Widespread use of encryption increases the costs of <a href="Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a>, so the government policies aim to regulate the use of the strong cryptography.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2000s, the effect of encryption on the surveillance capabilities was limited by the ever-increasing share of communications going through the global social media platforms, that did not use the strong encryption and provided governments with the requested data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202258_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202258-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Murphy talks about a legislative balance that needs to be struck between the power of the government that are broad enough to be able to follow the quickly-evolving technology, yet sufficiently narrow for the public and overseeing agencies to understand the future use of the legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The initial response of the US government to the expanded availability of cryptography was to treat the cryptographic research in the same way the <a href="Atomic_energy" title="Atomic energy">atomic energy</a> research is, i.e., "<a href="Born_classified" class="mw-redirect" title="Born classified">born classified</a>", with the government exercising the legal control of dissemination of research results. This had quickly found to be impossible, and the efforts were switched to the control over deployment (export, as prohibition on the deployment of cryptography within the US was not seriously considered).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007726_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007726-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Export_of_cryptography_from_the_United_States" title="Export of cryptography from the United States">Export of cryptography from the United States</a></div>

<p>The export control in the US historically uses two tracks:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007727_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007727-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>military items (designated as "munitions", although in practice the items on the <a href="United_States_Munitions_List" title="United States Munitions List">United States Munitions List</a> do not match the common meaning of this word). The export of munitions is controlled ty the <a href="Department_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of State">Department of State</a>. The restrictions for the munitions are very tight, with individual export licenses specifying the product and the actual customer;</li>

<li><a href="Dual-use" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual-use">dual-use</a> items ("commodities") need to be commercially available without excessive paperwork, so, depending on the destination, broad permissions can be granted for sales to civilian customers. The licensing for the dual-use items is provided by the <a href="Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce">Department of Commerce</a>. The process of moving an item from the munition list to commodity status is handled by the Department of State.</li></ul>

<p>Since the original applications of cryptography were almost exclusively military, it was placed on the munitions list. With the growth of the civilian uses, the dual-use cryptography was defined by <a href="Cryptographic_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptographic strength">cryptographic strength</a>, with the strong encryption remaining a munition in a similar way to the guns (<a href="Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">small arms</a> are dual-use while artillery is of purely military value).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This classification had its obvious drawbacks: a major bank is arguably just as systemically important as a military installation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and restriction on publishing the strong cryptography code run against the <a href="First_Amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="First Amendment">First Amendment</a>, so after experimenting in 1993 with the <a href="Clipper_chip" title="Clipper chip">Clipper chip</a> (where the US government kept special decryption keys in <a href="Escrow" title="Escrow">escrow</a>), in 1996 almost all cryptographic items were transferred to the Department of Commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007730_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007730-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The position of the EU, in comparison to the US, had always been tilting more towards privacy. In particular, EU had rejected the <a href="Key_escrow" title="Key escrow">key escrow</a> idea as early as 1997. <a href="European_Union_Agency_for_Cybersecurity" title="European Union Agency for Cybersecurity">European Union Agency for Cybersecurity</a> (ENISA) holds the opinion that the <a href="Backdoor_(cryptography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Backdoor (cryptography)">backdoors</a> are not efficient for the legitimate surveillance, yet pose great danger to the general digital security.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The <a href="Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a> (post-<a href="Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a>) represent a group of states with similar views one the issues of security and privacy. The group might have enough heft to drive the global agenda on the <a href="Lawful_interception" title="Lawful interception">lawful interception</a>. The efforts of this group are not entirely coordinated: for example, the 2019 demand for Facebook not to implement <a href="End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">end-to-end encryption</a> was not supported by either Canada or New Zealand, and did not result in a regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

<p>President and government of Russia in 90s has issued a few decrees formally banning uncertified cryptosystems from use by government agencies. Presidential decree of 1995 also attempted to ban individuals from producing and selling cryptography systems without having appropriate license, but it wasn't enforced in any way as it was suspected to be contradictory the <a href="Russian_constitution_of_1993" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian constitution of 1993">Russian Constitution of 1993</a> and wasn't a law per se.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decree of No.313 issued in 2012 further amended previous ones allowing to produce and distribute products with embedded cryptosystems and requiring no license as such, even though it declares some restrictions.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="France" title="France">France</a> had quite strict regulations in this field, but has relaxed them in recent years.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strong">Strong</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Pretty_Good_Privacy" title="Pretty Good Privacy">PGP</a> is generally considered an example of strong cryptography, with versions running under most popular operating systems and on various hardware platforms. The open source standard for PGP operations is <a href="OpenPGP" class="mw-redirect" title="OpenPGP">OpenPGP</a>, and <a href="GnuPG" class="mw-redirect" title="GnuPG">GnuPG</a> is an implementation of that standard from the <a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">FSF</a>. However, the IDEA signature key in classical PGP is only 64 bits long, therefore no longer immune to collision attacks. OpenPGP therefore uses the <a href="SHA-2" title="SHA-2">SHA-2</a> hash function and AES cryptography.</li>

<li>The <a href="Advanced_Encryption_Standard" title="Advanced Encryption Standard">AES</a> algorithm is considered strong after being selected in a <a href="Advanced_Encryption_Standard_process" title="Advanced Encryption Standard process">lengthy selection process</a> that was open and involved numerous tests.</li>

<li><a href="Elliptic_curve_cryptography" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptic curve cryptography">Elliptic curve cryptography</a> is another system which is based on a graphical geometrical function.</li>

<li>The latest version of <a href="Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS</a> protocol (<a href="Transport_Layer_Security#TLS_1.3" title="Transport Layer Security">version 1.3</a>), used to secure <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> transactions, is generally considered strong. Several vulnerabilities exist in previous versions, including demonstrated attacks such as <a href="POODLE" title="POODLE">POODLE</a>. Worse, some cipher-suites are deliberately weakened to use a 40-bit effective key to allow <a href="Crypto_Wars" title="Crypto Wars">export under pre-1996 U.S. regulations</a>.</li></ul>

<p>Examples that are not considered cryptographically strong include:

</p>

<ul><li>The <a href="Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard">DES</a>, whose 56-bit keys allow attacks via exhaustive search.</li>

<li>Triple-DES (3DES / EDE3-DES) can be subject of the "SWEET32 Birthday attack"<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Wired_Equivalent_Privacy" title="Wired Equivalent Privacy">Wired Equivalent Privacy</a> which is subject to a number of attacks due to flaws in its design.</li>

<li><a href="Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">SSL</a> v2 and v3. TLS 1.0 and TLS 1.1 are also deprecated now [see RFC7525] because of irreversible flaws which are still present by design and because they do not provide elliptical handshake (EC) for ciphers, no modern cryptography, no CCM/GCM ciphermodes. TLS1.x are also announced off by the PCIDSS 3.2 for commercial business/banking implementations on web frontends. Only TLS1.2 and TLS 1.3 are allowed and recommended, modern ciphers, handshakes and ciphermodes must be used exclusively.</li>

<li>The <a href="MD5" title="MD5">MD5</a> and <a href="SHA-1" title="SHA-1">SHA-1</a> hash functions, no longer immune to collision attacks.</li>

<li>The <a href="RC4" title="RC4">RC4</a> stream cipher.</li>

<li>The 40-bit <a href="Content_Scramble_System" title="Content Scramble System">Content Scramble System</a> used to encrypt most <a href="DVD-Video" title="DVD-Video">DVD-Video</a> discs.</li>

<li>Almost all <a href="Classical_cipher" title="Classical cipher">classical ciphers</a>.</li>

<li>Most rotary ciphers, such as the <a href="Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma machine</a>.</li>

<li>DHE/EDHE is guessable/weak when using/re-using known default prime values on the server</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The sources provided here are in Russian. To alleviate the problem of lack of English-written ones the sources are cited by using official government documents.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015121-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015121_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVagle2015">Vagle 2015</a>, p. 121.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015113_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVagle2015">Vagle 2015</a>, p. 113.</span>

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFLevy1994" class="citation news cs1">Levy, Steven (12 July 1994). "Battle of the Clipper Chip". <i><a href="New_York_Times_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times Magazine">New York Times Magazine</a></i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">44–</span>51.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/policy-guidance/encryption">"Encryption and Export Administration Regulations (EAR)"</a>. <i>bis.doc.gov</i>. <a href="Bureau_of_Industry_and_Security" title="Bureau of Industry and Security">Bureau of Industry and Security</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinhold19993_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinhold1999">Reinhold 1999</a>, p. 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19982-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19982_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchneier1998">Schneier 1998</a>, p. 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19983-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19983_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchneier1998">Schneier 1998</a>, p. 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneier19984-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneier19984_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchneier1998">Schneier 1998</a>, p. 4.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015110-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015110_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVagle2015">Vagle 2015</a>, p. 110.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007725_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 725.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015109-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015109_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVagle2015">Vagle 2015</a>, p. 109.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVagle2015119_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVagle2015">Vagle 2015</a>, p. 119.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007731-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007731_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 731.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.io.path.getrandomfilename.aspx"><i>Path.GetRandomFileName Method (System.IO)</i></a>, Microsoft</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202242_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRiebeKühnImperatoriReuter2022">Riebe et al. 2022</a>, p. 42.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202258-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERiebeKühnImperatoriReuter202258_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRiebeKühnImperatoriReuter2022">Riebe et al. 2022</a>, p. 58.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2020_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2020">Murphy 2020</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007726-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007726_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 726.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007727-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007727_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 727.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007728_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 728.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007730-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDiffieLandau2007730_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDiffieLandau2007">Diffie & Landau 2007</a>, p. 730.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFarber1995" class="citation web cs1">Farber, Dave (1995-04-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/199504/msg00018.html">"A ban on cryptography in Russia (fwd) [Next .. djf]"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-02-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAntipov1970" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Antipov, Alexander (1970-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.securitylab.ru/informer/240707.php">"Пресловутый указ №334 о запрете криптографии"</a>. <i>www.securitylab.ru</i> (in Russian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-21</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/7701">"Указ Президента Российской Федерации от 03.04.1995 г. № 334"</a>. <i>Президент России</i> (in Russian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-21</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rg.ru/2012/04/24/shifry-site-dok.html">"Положение о лицензировании деятельности по разработке, производству, распространению шифровальных средств и систем"</a>. <i>Российская газета</i> (in Russian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-21</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bankir.ru/publikacii/20090714/mif-49-v-rossii-zaprescheno-ispolzovat-nesertificirovannie-sredstva-shifrovaniya-2228626/">"Миф №49 "В России запрещено использовать несертифицированные средства шифрования""</a>. <i>bankir.ru</i> (in Russian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-21</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/security-bulletin-sweet32-vulnerability-impacts-triple-des-cipher-affects-communications-server-data-center-deployment-communications-server-aix-linux-linux-system-z-and-windows-cve-2016-2183">Security Bulletin: Sweet32 vulnerability that impacts Triple DES cipher</a>. IBM Security Bulletin, 2016.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFVagle2015" class="citation journal cs1">Vagle, Jeffrey L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=11134&context=ilj">"Furtive Encryption: Power, Trusts, and the Constitutional Cost of Collective Surveillance"</a>. <i><a href="Indiana_Law_Journal" title="Indiana Law Journal">Indiana Law Journal</a></i>. <b>90</b> (1).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReinhold1999" class="citation book cs1">Reinhold, Arnold G. (September 17, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cato.org/briefing-paper/strong-cryptography-global-tide-change"><i>Strong Cryptography The Global Tide of Change</i></a>. Cato Institute Briefing Papers No. 51. <a href="Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDiffieLandau2007" class="citation book cs1">Diffie, Whitfield; Landau, Susan (2007). "The export of cryptography in the 20th and the 21st centuries". <i>The History of Information Security</i>. Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">725–</span>736. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-044451608-4%2F50027-4">10.1016/b978-044451608-4/50027-4</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-444-51608-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2020" class="citation journal cs1">Murphy, Cian C (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473779520980556">"The Crypto-Wars myth: The reality of state access to encrypted communications"</a>. <i>Common Law World Review</i>. <b>49</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4). SAGE Publications: <span class="nowrap">245–</span>261. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1473779520980556">10.1177/1473779520980556</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2F3c40a9b4-4a96-4073-b204-2030170b2e63">1983/3c40a9b4-4a96-4073-b204-2030170b2e63</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1473-7795">1473-7795</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRiebeKühnImperatoriReuter2022" class="citation journal cs1">Riebe, Thea; Kühn, Philipp; Imperatori, Philipp; Reuter, Christian (2022-02-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s41125-022-00080-0.pdf?pdf=button">"U.S. Security Policy: The Dual-Use Regulation of Cryptography and its Effects on Surveillance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Journal for Security Research</i>. <b>7</b> (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: <span class="nowrap">39–</span>65. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41125-022-00080-0">10.1007/s41125-022-00080-0</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2365-0931">2365-0931</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFeigenbaum2019" class="citation journal cs1">Feigenbaum, Joan (2019-04-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3319079">"Encryption and surveillance"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>62</b> (5). Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): <span class="nowrap">27–</span>29. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3319079">10.1145/3319079</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchneier1998" class="citation web cs1">Schneier, Bruce (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.madchat.fr/crypto/papers/pitfalls.pdf">"Security pitfalls in cryptography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="40-bit_encryption" title="40-bit encryption">40-bit encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Cipher_security_summary" title="Cipher security summary">Cipher security summary</a></li>

<li><a href="Export_of_cryptography" title="Export of cryptography">Export of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_cryptography_libraries" title="Comparison of cryptography libraries">Comparison of cryptography libraries</a></li>

<li><a href="FBI%E2%80%93Apple_encryption_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI–Apple encryption dispute">FBI–Apple encryption dispute</a></li>

<li><a href="Hash_function_security_summary" title="Hash function security summary">Hash function security summary</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_level" title="Security level">Security level</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox0" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cryptography149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_cryptography" title="History of cryptography">History of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_cryptography" title="Outline of cryptography">Outline of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_cipher" title="Classical cipher">Classical cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_protocol" title="Cryptographic protocol">Cryptographic protocol</a>

<ul><li><a href="Authentication_protocol" title="Authentication protocol">Authentication protocol</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_primitive" title="Cryptographic primitive">Cryptographic primitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">Cryptanalysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">Cryptocurrency</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">Cryptosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">Cryptographic nonce</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hash_function" title="Hash function">Hash function</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_derivation_function" title="Key derivation function">Key derivation function</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_Hash_Algorithms" title="Secure Hash Algorithms">Secure Hash Algorithms</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">Digital signature</a></li>

<li><a href="Kleptography" title="Kleptography">Kleptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">Key (cryptography)</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_exchange" title="Key exchange">Key exchange</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_generator" title="Key generator">Key generator</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_schedule" title="Key schedule">Key schedule</a></li>

<li><a href="Key_stretching" title="Key stretching">Key stretching</a></li>

<li><a href="Keygen" title="Keygen">Keygen</a></li>

<li>Machines</li>

<li><a href="Cryptojacking_malware" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptojacking malware">Cryptojacking malware</a></li>

<li><a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>

<li><a href="Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">Random number generation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator</a> (CSPRNG)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pseudorandom_noise" title="Pseudorandom noise">Pseudorandom noise</a> (PRN)</li>

<li><a href="Secure_channel" title="Secure channel">Secure channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Insecure_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecure channel">Insecure channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Subliminal_channel" title="Subliminal channel">Subliminal channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">Encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Decryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Decryption">Decryption</a></li>

<li><a href="End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">End-to-end encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Harvest_now%2C_decrypt_later" title="Harvest now, decrypt later">Harvest now, decrypt later</a></li>

<li><a href="Information-theoretic_security" title="Information-theoretic security">Information-theoretic security</a></li>

<li><a href="Plaintext" title="Plaintext">Plaintext</a></li>

<li><a href="Codetext" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetext">Codetext</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciphertext" title="Ciphertext">Ciphertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_secret" title="Shared secret">Shared secret</a></li>

<li><a href="Trapdoor_function" title="Trapdoor function">Trapdoor function</a></li>

<li><a href="Trusted_timestamping" title="Trusted timestamping">Trusted timestamping</a></li>

<li><a href="Key-based_routing" title="Key-based routing">Key-based routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Onion_routing" title="Onion routing">Onion routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Garlic_routing" title="Garlic routing">Garlic routing</a></li>

<li><a href="Kademlia" title="Kademlia">Kademlia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mix_network" title="Mix network">Mix network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_cipher" title="Block cipher">Block cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_cipher" title="Stream cipher">Stream cipher</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">Symmetric-key algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Authenticated_encryption" title="Authenticated encryption">Authenticated encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Public-key_cryptography" title="Public-key cryptography">Public-key cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">Message authentication code</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Random numbers</a></li>

<li><a href="Steganography" title="Steganography">Steganography</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cryptographic_software793" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cryptographic_software793" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Encryption_software" title="Encryption software">Cryptographic software</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Email_client" title="Email client">Email clients</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apple_Mail" title="Apple Mail">Apple Mail</a></li>

<li><a href="Autocrypt" title="Autocrypt">Autocrypt</a></li>

<li><a href="Claws_Mail" title="Claws Mail">Claws Mail</a></li>

<li><a href="Enigmail" title="Enigmail">Enigmail</a></li>

<li><a href="Kontact" title="Kontact">Kontact</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Outlook" title="Microsoft Outlook">Outlook</a></li>

<li><a href="Sylpheed" title="Sylpheed">Sylpheed</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_Thunderbird" title="Mozilla Thunderbird">Thunderbird</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Secure_communication" title="Secure communication">Secure<br>communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Off-the-Record_Messaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-the-Record Messaging">OTR</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adium" title="Adium">Adium</a></li>

<li><a href="BitlBee" title="BitlBee">BitlBee</a></li>

<li><a href="Centericq" title="Centericq">Centericq</a></li>

<li><a href="ChatSecure" title="ChatSecure">ChatSecure</a></li>

<li><a href="Climm" title="Climm">climm</a></li>

<li><a href="Jitsi" title="Jitsi">Jitsi</a></li>

<li><a href="Kopete" title="Kopete">Kopete</a></li>

<li><a href="Profanity_(instant_messaging_client)" title="Profanity (instant messaging client)">Profanity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Secure_Shell" title="Secure Shell">SSH</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dropbear_(software)" title="Dropbear (software)">Dropbear</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenSSH" title="OpenSSH">OpenSSH</a></li>

<li><a href="PuTTY" title="PuTTY">PuTTY</a></li>

<li><a href="SecureCRT" title="SecureCRT">SecureCRT</a></li>

<li><a href="WinSCP" title="WinSCP">WinSCP</a></li>

<li><a href="WolfSSH" title="WolfSSH">wolfSSH</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS & SSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="BBM_Enterprise" title="BBM Enterprise">BBM Enterprise</a></li>

<li><a href="Bouncy_Castle_(cryptography)" title="Bouncy Castle (cryptography)">Bouncy Castle</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenSSL#BoringSSL" title="OpenSSL">BoringSSL</a></li>

<li><a href="Botan_(programming_library)" title="Botan (programming library)">Botan</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptlib" title="Cryptlib">cryptlib</a></li>

<li><a href="GnuTLS" title="GnuTLS">GnuTLS</a></li>

<li><a href="LibreSSL" title="LibreSSL">LibreSSL</a></li>

<li><a href="MatrixSSL" title="MatrixSSL">MatrixSSL</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenSSL" title="OpenSSL">OpenSSL</a></li>

<li><a href="BSAFE" title="BSAFE">BSAFE</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_Support_Provider_Interface" title="Security Support Provider Interface">SChannel</a></li>

<li><a href="SSLeay" title="SSLeay">SSLeay</a></li>

<li><a href="Stunnel" title="Stunnel">stunnel</a></li>

<li><a href="TeamNote" title="TeamNote">TeamNote</a></li>

<li><a href="WolfSSL" title="WolfSSL">wolfSSL</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Check_Point_VPN-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Check Point VPN-1">Check Point VPN-1</a></li>

<li><a href="LogMeIn_Hamachi" title="LogMeIn Hamachi">Hamachi</a></li>

<li><a href="Openswan" title="Openswan">Openswan</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenVPN" title="OpenVPN">OpenVPN</a></li>

<li><a href="SoftEther_VPN" title="SoftEther VPN">SoftEther VPN</a></li>

<li><a href="StrongSwan" title="StrongSwan">strongSwan</a></li>

<li><a href="WireGuard" title="WireGuard">WireGuard</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="ZRTP" title="ZRTP">ZRTP</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jitsi" title="Jitsi">Jitsi</a></li>

<li><a href="Linphone" title="Linphone">Linphone</a></li>

<li><a href="Zfone" title="Zfone">Zfone</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">P2P</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bitmessage" title="Bitmessage">Bitmessage</a></li>

<li><a href="Briar_(software)" title="Briar (software)">Briar</a></li>

<li><a href="RetroShare" class="mw-redirect" title="RetroShare">RetroShare</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Double_Ratchet_Algorithm" title="Double Ratchet Algorithm">DRA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Matrix_(protocol)" title="Matrix (protocol)">Matrix</a></li>

<li><a href="OMEMO" title="OMEMO">OMEMO</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptocat" title="Cryptocat">Cryptocat</a></li>

<li><a href="ChatSecure" title="ChatSecure">ChatSecure</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wire_Swiss" title="Wire Swiss">Proteus</a></li>

<li><a href="Session_(software)" title="Session (software)">Session</a></li>

<li><a href="Signal_Protocol" title="Signal Protocol">Signal Protocol</a>

<ul><li><a href="Facebook_Messenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Facebook Messenger">Facebook Messenger</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Allo" title="Google Allo">Google Allo</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Messages" title="Google Messages">Google Messages</a></li>

<li><a href="Signal_(software)" title="Signal (software)">Signal</a></li>

<li><a href="TextSecure" title="TextSecure">TextSecure</a></li>

<li><a href="WhatsApp" title="WhatsApp">WhatsApp</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Disk_encryption" title="Disk encryption">Disk encryption</a><br><span style="font-weight:normal">(<a href="Comparison_of_disk_encryption_software" title="Comparison of disk encryption software">Comparison</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="BestCrypt" title="BestCrypt">BestCrypt</a></li>

<li><a href="BitLocker" title="BitLocker">BitLocker</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptoloop" title="Cryptoloop">Cryptoloop</a></li>

<li><a href="Dm-crypt" title="Dm-crypt">dm-crypt</a></li>

<li><a href="DriveSentry" title="DriveSentry">DriveSentry</a></li>

<li><a href="ECryptfs" title="ECryptfs">eCryptfs</a></li>

<li><a href="FileVault" title="FileVault">FileVault</a></li>

<li><a href="FreeOTFE" title="FreeOTFE">FreeOTFE</a></li>

<li><a href="PGPDisk" title="PGPDisk">PGPDisk</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_Disk" title="Private Disk">Private Disk</a></li>

<li><a href="Scramdisk" title="Scramdisk">Scramdisk</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentry_2020" title="Sentry 2020">Sentry 2020</a></li>

<li><a href="TrueCrypt" title="TrueCrypt">TrueCrypt</a>

<ul><li><a href="TrueCrypt_version_history" title="TrueCrypt version history">History</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="VeraCrypt" title="VeraCrypt">VeraCrypt</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anonymity#Anonymity_on_the_Internet" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="GNUnet#File_sharing" title="GNUnet">GNUnet</a></li>

<li><a href="Java_Anon_Proxy" title="Java Anon Proxy">Java Anon Proxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Vidalia_(software)" title="Vidalia (software)">Vidalia</a></li>

<li><a href="RetroShare" class="mw-redirect" title="RetroShare">RetroShare</a></li>

<li><a href="Ricochet_(software)" title="Ricochet (software)">Ricochet</a></li>

<li><a href="Wickr" title="Wickr">Wickr</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="File_system" title="File system">File systems</a> <span style="font-weight:normal">(<a href="List_of_cryptographic_file_systems" title="List of cryptographic file systems">List</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="EncFS" title="EncFS">EncFS</a></li>

<li><a href="ECryptfs" title="ECryptfs">eCryptfs</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubberhose_(file_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubberhose (file system)">Rubberhose</a></li>

<li><a href="StegFS" title="StegFS">StegFS</a></li>

<li><a href="Tahoe-LAFS" title="Tahoe-LAFS">Tahoe-LAFS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Security-focused_operating_system" title="Security-focused operating system">Security-focused<br>operating system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tails_(operating_system)" title="Tails (operating system)">Tails</a></li>

<li><a href="Qubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Qubes">Qubes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Service providers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hyphanet" title="Hyphanet">Hyphanet</a></li>

<li><a href="Tresorit" title="Tresorit">Tresorit</a></li>

<li><a href="Wuala" title="Wuala">Wuala</a></li>

<li><a href="NordLocker" title="NordLocker">NordLocker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="CrypTool" title="CrypTool">CrypTool</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anti%E2%80%93computer_forensics" title="Anti–computer forensics">Anti–computer forensics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="USBKill" title="USBKill">USBKill</a></li>

<li><a href="BusKill" title="BusKill">BusKill</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_cryptography" title="Outline of cryptography">Outline of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_cryptography" title="Timeline of cryptography">Timeline of cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Hash_function" title="Hash function">Hash functions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_hash_functions" title="List of hash functions">List of hash functions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Homomorphic_encryption" title="Homomorphic encryption">Homomorphic encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">End-to-end encryption</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cryptographic_software" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Cryptographic software">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-02-06" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Strong_cryptography&oldid=1274338133">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>